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A few of NASA's spinoffs:

Laser Angioplasty

The DymerTM 200+ excimer angioplasty system vaporizes blockages in coronary arteries without damaging arterial walls

Physicians have a powerful new weapon in the war against heart disease, thanks to space technology. A laser system first used for satellite-based atmospheric studies has been reapplied to treat atherosclerosis, the buildup of fatty deposits - called plaque - in the arteries. These deposits can lead to heart disease, the number one cause of death in the United States.

Developed by Advanced Interventional Systems, Inc. (AIS), Irvine, California, the DymerTM 200+ excimer laser angioplasty system vaporizes blockages in coronary arteries without damaging arterial walls. In January 1992, the system received Food and Drug Administration approval for treatment of coronary disease.

Laser angioplasty is less expensive and, because it is minimally invasive, less risky than a coronary bypass, which replaces clogged blood vessels. Further, lasers can help a broader range of patients than the current bypass alternative, balloon angioplasty (see next page), in which a flexible catheter with a tiny balloon at its tip is threaded into the blocked artery and inflated to widen the path for blood flow.

The AIS system employs excimer laser technology pioneered at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) for remote sensing of the ozone layer. While other types of lasers such as CO2 and nd:YAG have surgical applications, they are too hot for delicate coronary surgery and could damage tissue, cause blood vessel spasms, or create blood clots. The excimer is a "cool" laser that uses ultraviolet light energy to operate at 65� C, a temperature human tissue can tolerate.

The Dymer 200+ laser angioplasty system is safer than coronary bypass operations and offers wider utility than balloon angioplasty.

The laser light is carried through fiber optic bundles within a flexible catheter designed to navigate the complex coronary anatomy. The Dymer 200+ incorporates NASA- developed switching technology to produce a uniform laser beam that can be controlled and pulsed in as little as 200 billionths of a second to maintain a low working temperature.

Since clinical tests began in 1988, over 2000 coronary angioplasty procedures have been performed with the system at 30 hospitals nationwide. It can be used to treat peripheral vascular disease and may have applications in neurosurgery and orthopedics.

Cardiac Imaging System

Computer- created "movies" of the heart help doctors to spot life-threatening blockages

Balloon angioplasty is a non-surgical procedure for clearing fatty deposits in the coronary arteries that block blood flow and cause heart attacks. The procedure involves threading a thin hollow tube called a catheter directly into a clogged artery. A cardiologist guides the catheter with the aid of an imaging system that shows on a monitor the heart's regions and the catheter as it moves. When the catheter penetrates a blocked segment, a small balloon at the tip of the catheter is inflated, pushing aside the fatty plaque and clearing the artery.

Although not available to all patients with narrowed arteries, the use of balloon angioplasty has expanded dramatically over the past decade�from 12,000 procedures worldwide in 1982 to an anticipated 560,000 in the U.S. alone this year. This growth has fueled demand for higher quality imaging systems to improve accuracy and the odds for success.

The Digital Cardiac Imaging (DCI) System answers this demand by incorporating image processing technology first developed for NASA's Earth remote sensing satellites. Designed by Philips Medical Systems International, The Netherlands, and marketed in the U.S. by Philips Medical Systems North America Company, Shelton, Connecticut, the DCI offers much sharper real-time images. It is the most widely used digital cardiac imaging system, according to the manufacturer, with more than 300 units in operation worldwide, including over 100 in the U.S.

The Philips system gives the cardiologist direct control of "roadmapping," in which freeze-frame images of a blood vessel section aid in guiding the catheter. Using a cordless control unit such as a remote TV channel selector, the cardiologist can manipulate images to make immediate assessments, compare live x-ray and road map images by placing them side-by-.side on monitor .screens, or compare pre- and post-procedure conditions. The additional information allows the doctor to get into and out of the heart more quickly, minimizing trauma.

The image processing technology employed by the DCI originated some 15 years ago at International Imaging Systems (I2S), Milpitas, California. 12S pioneered optical, analog, and digital image processing equipment for NASA's Earth resources survey spacecraft, exemplified by the Landsat satellite family. In the early 1980s, 12S responded to emerging interest within the medical industry for such applications as ultrasound, computer-aided tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) body scanners. I2S supplied medical equipment firms with image processing hardware and software identical to that used by NASA. Subsequently, I2S broadened its market and developed application-specific products for its industrial clients, including a high-performance processor for Philips Medical's DCI system.

Advanced Pacemaker

A state-of-the-art implantable pacemaker closely matches the natural rhythm of the heart

Communications technology that bridges the gap between Earth stations and orbiting satellites also enables doctors to communicate with pacemakers implanted in the human body.

At top is Synchrony*, a state-of-the-art implantable pacemaker that closely matches the natural rhythm of the heart. Below is the companion element of the Synchrony Pacemaker System, the Programmer Analyzer APS-II, which allows a doctor to reprogram and fine-tune the pacemaker to each user's special requirements without surgery.

Bi-directional telemetry, a type of two-way communications developed by NASA, provides the means to both instruct and query the pacemaker. For example, the doctor can send signals to the pacemaker to alter its rate and also receive signals from the implanted device regarding the status of its interaction with the heart. This way, the doctor can adjust the device to best suit a patient's needs, which may change over time.

Developed by Siemens-Pacesetter Inc., Sylmar, California, the Synchrony Pacemaker System won Food and Drug Administration approval for general marketing in August 1989 after clinical trials involving more than 750 implants in 90 hospitals.

Synchrony features a unique sensor that allows the pacemaker to respond to body movements. During increased activity, it accelerates the heart rate, boosting the supply of oxygen to the body. This opens up to pacemaker patients a wide range of activities�jogging, dancing, swimming,�from which they were previously barred.

The Programmer Analyzer APS-II has 28 pacing functions and thousands of programming combinations to accommodate diverse lifestyles. The microprocessor unit records and stores pertinent patient data for up to a year.

Implantable Heart Aid

Miniaturized space technology detects a broad range of spontaneous heart arrhythmias

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) strikes nearly half a million Americans each year. Eighty percent die before medical help arrives and those who survive face a two-year recurrence rate that may be a as high as 55 percent. For many potential victims, however, the Automatic Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator, or AICD* (shown at right) offers new hope: it can reduce the two-year SCD mortality rate to less than three percent.

The AICD incorporates spacebased miniaturized electronics to detect a broad range of spontaneous heart arrhythmias, including those caused by ventricular fibrillation, during which the heart loses its ability to pump blood, causing death or brain damage in minutes. The AICD works by shocking the heart via electrodes that have been surgically placed in and on the heart. Comprising a pulse generator and two sensors that continuously monitor heart activity, the AICD automatically delivers electrical countershocks to restore rhythmic heartbeat as necessary. It works in the same way as defibrillators used by emergency squads and hospitals, but offers the advantage of being permanently available to patients with high risk of experiencing SCD.

The AICD pulse generator was developed in the early 197Os by Intec Systems Inc. and Medrad Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, in conjunction with researchers at Sinai Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland. NASA funded development of an AICD recording system and an independent design review of the system, both conducted by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University, Howard County, Maryland. The first model was successfully implanted in a dog in 1976 and, after 12 years and more than $4 million in research, the device was implanted in a 57-year-old woman at Johns Hopkins Hospital on February 4, 198O. Clinical studies ensued and a grant from NASA enabled Intec Systems and the Applied Physics Laboratory to pursue development of more advanced models.

The AICD is manufactured by Cardiac Pacemakers, Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota, a subsidiary of Eli Lilly and Company, which purchased Intec Systems in 1985. CPI was the first company to receive FDA approval for an implantable defibrillator and continues to work to make this lifesaving technology available to a greater number of patients.

Implantable and External Pumps

Offering diabetics automatic, precise control of blood sugar levels

Insulin-dependent diabetics have been aided by the use of space technology in the development of both external and implantable insulin delivery systems. A computerized pump can serve as an electronic artificial pancreas that infuses insulin at a pre-programmed rate, allowing for more precise control of blood sugar levels, without which complications such as blindness and kidney disease may result, while freeing the diabetic from the burden of daily insulin injections.

The Programmable Implantable Medication System (PIMS) resulted from efforts begun in the 197Os at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to transfer aerospace technology to the medical field. Created by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University in cooperation with Goddard and MiniMed Technologies, a California-based manufacturer of medical equipment, the PIMS is surgically implanted in the diabetic's abdomen to continuously deliver insulin.

The implant consists of a refillable drug reservoir, a pumping mechanism, a catheter leading from the pump to the diabetic's intestines, a microcomputer, and a lithium battery�all encased in a titanium shell 3.2 inches in diameter and three quarters of an inch thick. The pump's tiny dimensions are the product of years of work to miniaturize components for satellite use.

(Photo Caption) The MiniMed 504 Insulin Infusion Pump, on aid to diabetics.

(Photo Caption) Clipped to a patient's clothing, the minipump delivers insulin continuously at a preprogrammed rate adjusted to the individual, allowing the insulin-dependent diabetic to lead a more normal life.

NASA technology also helped create the pumping mechanism, which is based on a design for the biological laboratory of the Mars Viking space probe. The device delivers insulin into the abdominal cavity in short bursts or "pulses," which conserves battery power. When an insulin refill is needed�about four times a year�it can be injected without surgery by a special hypodermic needle.

Both patient and physician can adjust the insulin delivery rate via digital telemetry�a technique developed by NASA to communicate with spacecraft from Earth. By holding a small radio transmitter over the implant and dialing one of ten preprogrammed codes, the diabetic can change the infusion rate or ask for a supplemental dose of insulin before meals or when blood sugar levels are elevated. Another code allows the physician to access information from the pump's stored memory, reprogram insulin delivery, and generate computer records of the pump's performance.

A device similar to the PIMS, but worn externally, is the MiniMed* 5O4 Insulin Infusion Pump. Also based on NASA technology, the MiniMed SO4 can be clipped to a belt or other part of the user's clothing and worn around the clock. About the size of a credit card and weighing just 3.8 ounces, it houses a microprocessor, a long-life battery, and a syringe reservoir filled with insulin. The syringe is connected to an infusion set that consists of a thin, flexible plastic tube about 3O inches long with a needle at its end. The patient inserts the needle subcutaneously, usually in the abdomen. Insulin is infused at rates determined by the patient's needs and programmed into the microprocessor.

Temperature Pill

The sensor reads the patient's internal temperature and telemeters the information to a receiving coil outside the body

Illustrated below is an ingestible thermometer capable of accurately measuring and relaying deep internal body temperatures. Developed by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics information to Laboratory in collaboration with NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, the Ingestible Thermal Monitoring System (marketed under the trade name CorTemp by Human Technologies, Inc. of St. Petersburg, Florida) enables improved patient care in hospitals and offers opportunities in medical experimentation.

The three-quarter-inch silicone capsule contains a telemetry system, a microbattery, and a quartz crystal temperature sensor. The sensor reads the internal temperature and telemeters the information to a receiving coil outside the body. From there it is relayed to a computer. The ITMS monitors continuously during the 24 to 78 hours it takes the capsuleto travel through the digestive system. The pill can record a patient's temperature every 3O seconds and can be programmed to sound an alarm if the temperature exceeds preset limits.

Researchers developed the ITMS for treatment of such emergency conditions as dangerously low (hypothermia) and dangerously high (hyperthermia) body temperatures. Extremely accurate readings are vital in treating such cases. While the average thermometer is accurate to one-tenth of a degree Centigrade, ITMS is off no more than one hundredth of a degree, and provides the only means of gauging deep body temperature.

Although the concept for the temperature pill dates back to the 195Os, until recently technology could not produce parts small enough for an ingestible capsule, while meeting reliability, accuracy, and cost objectives. The ITMS achieves these performance goals by adopting space-based technologies such as miniaturized integrated circuits and telemetry techniques originally developed for transmission of coded signals to Earth from orbiting satellites.

The system has applications in fertility monitoring, incubator monitoring, and some aspects of surgery, critical care, obstetrics, metabolic disease treatment, gerontology (aging), and food processing research. APL is working on an advanced four-channel capsule that will simultaneously monitor temperature, heart rate, inner body pressure, and acidity.

Infrared Thermometer

Aural thermometer gauges body temperature in two seconds or less

Adopting infrared sensor technology developed for space missions,the Diatek Corporation of San Diego, Calif., produced an aural thermometer that gauges body temperature in two seconds or less. Accurate to within two-tenths of a degree, the Model 7OOO thermometer measures heat emitted from the patient's tympanic membrane, or eardrum.

The technique could save considerable time for nurses, who take many temperatures in the course of a hospital shift. In the U.S. alone, some two billion clinical temperature readings are taken annually, about half of them in acute care hospital facilities. The national shortage of nursing personnel spurred Diatek to pursue development of a faster thermometer. The company's researchers turned to infrared optical technology because it offered quick operation and extreme accuracy. The Model 7OOO optical sensor was designed by Diatek engineers and refined with help from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which has 3O years experience using infrared sensors to remotely measure the temperatures of planets and stars.

To take a temperature, the nurse inserts the plastic-covered probe into the opening of the patient's ear canal and presses a button to activate the sensor. The probe detects infrared radiation emitted from the eardrum and a microprocessor converts it to the corresponding body temperature, which is displayed on a liquid crystal screen. The aural device enhances the comfort of critically ill, incapacitated, or newborn patients, and makes frequent temperature taking less bothersome Further, it reduces the risk of cross-infection because it avoids contact with mucous membranes and employs disposable probe covers.

The thermometer weighs only eight ounces and can be operated with one hand. It is targeted for acute-care hospitals ancl alternative health care sites such as nursing homes, blood banks, and cancer and burn centers. Diatek expects 6O percent of all clinical thermometers to use infrared sensors by 1997.

(Photo Caption) A nurse takes a patient's temperature with the Diatek Model 7000 aural thermomenter, which employs infrared technology to obtain a near-instantaneous reading.

Thermal Video

A noninvasive means of observing physiological problems

Since the time of Hippocrates, physicians have known that temperature variations hold important clues for diagnosing disease. A localized hot spot on the skin's surface might indicate unseen inflammation, while a cold spot could be symptomatic of poor blood circulation. In the past, however, there was no way to accurately measure fluctuating heat emissions. Now, through the rapidly advancing technology of infrared thermography, physicians have a tool to detect the slight temperature differences that warn of pathology.

Thermographic devices convert invisible infrared (IR) radiation into voltage signals that can be displayed on a monitor. The first IR sensors were developed for military purposes such as missile guidance. Hughes Aircraft Company pioneered the civil application of IR heat sensors as part of a NASA-sponsored research project.

More recently, medical use of thermography has rapidly gained acceptance as a noninvasive means of observing physiological problems. Whereas an x-ray indicates structural anomalies, thermography can pointout functional anomalies. For instance, a thermogram showing an asymmetrical temperature pattern on the body surface serves as a visual indicator of pain, while mapping of dermatones (areas of skin supplied by a specific spinal nerve) enables accurate measurement of nerve dysfunction. Sensory nerve impairment in the lower back is indicated by a temperature difference, from one extremity to the other, of only 1 degree C.

Thermography is proving to be a valuable screening tool in diagnosis. It can provide information that obviates the need to do more invasive tests that might be painful or hazardous. Thermal imaging also can verify a patient's progress through therapy and rehabilitation, and it is finding special utility in determining the extent of sports injuries.

One of the leading purveyors of thermographic equipment is FLIR Systems of Portland, Oregon. The company purchased Hughes' line of Probeye* thermal video systems in 199O and now markets a wide range of infrared systems and accessories, principally for industrial uses such as inspection of electronic components, profiling for nonrestrictive testing, quality inspection, preventive maintenance. and routine monitoring of production processes and energy losses.

(Photo Caption) The Probeye thermal video system serves as a none invasive diagnostic tool. Here, the patient's posture allows the scanner to sense heat differences in the lower back and thereby assess sensory nerve impairment.

(Photo Caption) This thermographic image reveals that the first two fingers of the right hand emit less heat at the skin surface, indicating subnormal blood circulation.

Body Imaging

Apollo research spawned new medical and diagnostic tools

The high-tech art of digital signal processing (DSP) was pioneered at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in the mid-196Os for use in the Apollo Lunar Landing Program. Designed to computer-enhance pictures of the moon, this technology became the basis for the Landsat Earth resources satellites and subsequently has been incorporated into a broad range of Earthbound medical and diagnostic tools.

DSP is employed in advanced body imaging techniques including computer-aided tomography, also known as CT and CATScan, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). CT images are collected by irradiating a thin slice in the body with a fan-shaped x-ray beam from a number of directions around the body's perimeter. A tomographic (slice-like) picture is reconstructed from these multiple views by a computer. MRI employs a magnetic field and radio waves to create images, rather than x-rays. The resultant MRI and CT images are often complementary. In most cases, MRI is useful for viewing soft tissue but not bone, while CT images are good for bone but not always for soft tissue discrimination.

Physicians and engineers in the Department of Radiology at the University of Michigan Hospitals, Ann Arbor, Michigan, are developing a method for combining the best features of MRI and CT scans to increase the accuracy of discriminating one type of body tissue from another. one of their research tools is a computer program originally developed to distinguish Earth surface features in Landsat image processing. Called HICAP, the program can be used to distinguish between healthy and diseased tissue in body images.

At top is a CT image of a slice of human liver with many lesions. It was analyzed and processed by HICAP to produce the image at bottom, in which the false-color red areas represent regions of a normal liver. Consecutive liver slices can be processed in this manner to produce a three-dimensional view of the liver.

HICAP was supplied to the Department of Radiology by NASA's Computer Software Management and Information Center (COSMIC*). Located at the University of Georgia, COSMIC makes available to the private sector government-developed computer programs that have commercial applications.

Skin Damage Assessment

High-resolution color images of human tissue aid burn treatment

The critical factor in the diagnosis and treatment of serious burns is accurate measurement of burn depth. The application of NASA ultrasound technology, originally developed to detect microscopic flaws in aircraft and spacecraft materials, has provided an advanced instrument that enables immediate assessment of burn damage. This knowledge improves patient treatment and may even save lives in serious burn cases.

The customary treatment for a severe burn is to allow natural sloughing of necrotic or dead tissue and then to close the resulting wounds with skin grafts. Effective treatment, therefore, depends upon early recognition of the extent of the dead tissue and its removal, by chemical or surgical means, to minimize risk of infection and hasten healing.

In 1983, NASA's Langley Research Center initiated a project to address this need for precise determination of burn depth. The project was spearheaded by physicists with Langley's Nondestructive Measurement Science Branch, which conducts research on ultrasonic and other techniques for evaluating quality and fatigue of aerospace materials. Also participating in the project were the Medical College of Virginia (MCV), Richmond, Virginia; the University of Aberdeen, Scotland; and the NASA Technology Applications Team, Research Triangle Institute (RTI), North Carolina.

(Photo Caption) Dr. Anthony Marmarou of the Medical College of Virginia uses the Supra Scanner to measure the depth of a patient's burn, a key factor in diagnosis and treatment.

Langley developed a prototype instrument capable of determining the level where bumed tissue ends and healthy tissue begins. This is possible because, when skin is burned, the protein collagen that makes up some 4O percent of skin becomes more dense. The Langley technique involved directing ultrasonic waves at the burned area: the difference in density between damaged and healthy tissue causes sound waves to reflect at the point of interface.

After successful completion of preliminary clinical tests by MCV, NASA's RTI technology team negotiated an agreement with Jack Cantwell Inc. (now Topox, Inc., Chadds Ford, Pa.) to commercialize the technology. Following clinical tests of the commercial version, known as the Supra Scanner, it was granted FDA approval in December 199O.

The Supra Scanner combines a scanning transducer and computer in a single instrument that can be used at a patient's bedside. The patented system produces high-resolution color images of up to 14 millimeters of human tissue, generates cross-sectional images of the skin, and provides data on skin surface and subsurface features.

The Supra Scanner also is applicable in diagnosis of skin cancer and lymphatic disorders, and in plastic surgery.

Gait Analysis System

A diagnostic tool for patients who experience difficulty walking

Data collected by orbiting satellites is relayed to Earth using telemetry, in which coded signals are sent by radio and then decoded on the ground. Telemetry is employed in collecting weather, air pollution, and water quality data and, in a specialized form known as biotelemetry, for such applications as monitoring astronaut vital functions from the ground.

One important Earth spinoff of biotelemetry is a diagnostic tool for patients who experience difficulty walking due to birth defects, disease, or injury. Such disorders affect the nervous system, causing muscular spasticity and loss of coordination. The impact on individual muscles varies widely and is difficult to determine solely by physical examination. Through a process called electromyography�the recording of electrical activity in the muscles�physicians can identify the affected muscles and prescribe treatment.

A space-derived invention known as the Gait Analysis Telemetry System provides valuable assistance in electromyographic analyses. The system, a cooperative development of NASA, the Children's Hospital at Stanford, Palo Alto, California, and L&M Electronics Inc., Daly City, Califomia, registers detailed information on a patient's leg muscle action during walking tests. Miniature sensor/transmitters, each about the size of a half dollar, are affixed directly over the muscle group being studied. Each transmitter has its own tiny lithium battery and a pair of sensing electrodes. The muscle activity sensed�called an EMG, for electromyogram�is sent to a computer for analysis and display.

Because it is wireless, the system has a big advantage over other EMG monitoring systems, which involve wires that connect leg sensors with a receiver/recorder. Wires may hamper a patient's walking and distort the recorded gait pattern.

Numerous hospitals use the system to conduct walking tests of children afflicted with cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, congenital disorders, or injuries. The telemetry records, measures, and analyzes muscle activity in the limbs and spine, yielding computer-generated pictures of gait pattems. These help physicians determine the potential of corrective surgery, evaluate various types of braces, or decide whether physical therapy can improve a child's mobility. The system also is employed in a research program at the Department of Veterans Affairs' Rehabilitation Research and Development Center, Palo Alto, Califomia, to investigate the possibility of restoring locomotion to patients with spinal cord injuries and severe gait disorders.

(Photo Caption) The Motion Analysis Loboratory of thildren's Hospital at Stanford uses o spote-derived biotelemetry system in tests of walking impaired children. The resulting data is used to determine the degree and locomotion of abnormal muscle activity and in prescribing treatment.

(Photo Caption) At left, leg sensars send signals to a computer that develops pictures of gait patterns for use by physicians and therapists.

Programmable Remapper

It manipulates images so that the portions that would normally fall outside are mapped onto the usable field of vision

At right is the Programmable Remapper, a novel digital image processing machine that has important potential for alleviating retinitis pigmentosa, maculopathy, and other vision impairments.

The Remapper candetermine how to best use the functional parts of a patient's retina. It manipulates images so that the portions that would normally fall outside are mapped onto the usable field of vision. If, for example, a person's central vision has deteriorated but peripheral vision is still intact, images are remapped or "pushed out" to the still-functioning peripheral field of vision.

The Remapper is an offshoot of a NASA program aimed at developing an image processor to simplify, speed up, and improve the accuracy of pattem recognition in video imagery. The processor is needed to solve problems associated with automated spacecraft tracking/docking and autonomous planetary landings. The original specifications were drawn up by the Tracking and Communications Division of Johnson Space Center (JSC), and the design accomplished jointly by JSC and Texas Instruments Inc., Dallas, Texas.

During its development, the Remapper's potential for application to human low vision problems quickly became apparent and NASA's Technology Utilization office provided funds to conduct vision- related research. Commercially available from Texas Instruments as a tool for optometric research, the Remapper is being adapted for use as a prosthesis for people suffering from certain forms of low vision.

It works at video rates; what is seen on the monitor screen is what is actually seen by the subject, with no computer analysis necessary. Thus, the system is a good candidate for prosthesis use if researchers can sufficiently reduce its size and cost to make it practical and portable. Worn on a belt or elsewhere, the Remapper would warp the image to correspond to the patient's vision characteristics and the viewing task. The patient would then view the warped image on a small video display in front of one or both eyes.

Computer Reader for the Blind

Optacon has provided a new level of independence

More than 20 years ago, Telesensory, Mountain View, Califomia, produced a spinoff technology that enabled the blind and deaf-blind to read�not just braille transcriptions but anything in print. In 1989, the company introduced an even more exciting aid for the blind, a second-generation spinoff that not only provides access to printed words, but also to the electronic information available on most personal computers. The original device, called optacon, is a combination of optical and electronic technology and incorporates research performed at Stanford Research Institute under the sponsorship of NASA's Ames Research Center. The user passes a mini-camera over a printed page with his left hand; a control unit processes the camera's picture, translates it into a vibrating image of the words the camera is viewing, and the user senses the tactile image with his other hand. optacon, which can be used with virtually any alphabet or language, has provided a new level of independence for thousands of blind people in more than 7O countries.

(Photo Caption) Optocon II permits a blind woman to perceive print and graphical images by providing to the images that she can read by touch.

Optacon II, a dramatically enhanced version, is a joint product of TeleSensory and Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan, which introduced the original optacon to Japan in 1974. It employs the same basic technique of converting printed information into a tactile image, but connects directly to an IBM or Macintosh computer. This opens up a new range of job opportunities to the blind. optacon II comprises a handheld camera with a silicon integrated circuit of lOO light-sensitive transistors; a microprocessor control unit that processes information from the camera; and a tactile array, driven by the control unit, consisting of lOO vibrating rods. The camera's "retina" sends the shape of what it is viewing to the control unit and the corresponding rods in the tactile array vibrate. Moving the camera with one hand, the operator perceives the vibrating image with the index finger of the other hand. optacon II is not limited to reading printed words; it can convert any graphic image viewed by the camera.

Vision Trainer

Improving vision defects by teaching a patient to control the eye's focusing muscle

Optometrist Dr. Joseph N. Trachtman invented a vision training system that could help the estimated 150 million Americans who are either nearsighted or farsighted to see better without glasses. Called the Accommotrac* Vision Trainer, it is based on vision studies by NASA's Ames Research Center and a special optometer developed for Ames by Stanford Research Institute.

Dr. Trachtman's vision trainer is designed to improve vision defects by teaching a patient to control the ciliary body, the focusing muscle of the eye. The key is biofeedback, a technique whereby a patient leams to control a bodily process or function of which he is not normally aware. Biofeedback can be used, for example, to enable a person to voluntarily control blood pressure and heart rate.

For vision training, the patient dons a headset and enters a darkened room. As he looks into the optical part of the system, harmless infrared light is directed into his eye and its focusing status measured 4O times a second. As the patient opens and closes the eye, an audible tone tells him how well he is controlling the focusing muscle. A nearsighted person, for example, would want the tone to go higher, indicating that he is relaxing the muscle and thereby improving his vision. The inability of the eye muscle to relax causes the blurry vision experienced by many nearsighted people.

(Photo Caption) Dr. Sanford Cohen, an optometrist, uses the Accommotrac Vision Trainer to teach a patient how to improve her vision by controlling and relaxing the eye's focusing muscl.

It takes a lot of practice and motivation, but through a series of one-hour sessions, a patient gradually learns to control relaxation or contraction (for farsightedness) of the eye muscle by auditory feedback. Not all patients can throw away their corrective lenses, but a high percentage achieve an improvement such as halting or reversing their need for ever-stronger lens prescriptions.

The Accommotrac Vision Trainer has also proven effective in treating eye movement problems such as strabismus (cross eyes) and amblyopia (lazy eye). Professional athletes have used the system to improve peripheral visual awareness and, thereby, athletic performance.

The origin of Dr. Trachtman's invention dates back more than 2O years, to when Ames contracted with Stanford Research Institute for studies of pilots' visual accommodation, the ability of the eye to adapt to distinct vision at different distances. Stanford researchers developed an optometer to measure visual accommodation. While running experiments with the optometer on pilots, they discovered that humans could learn to control eye focusing. Adding auditory biofeedback created an effective learning system and a way to overcome an aviation phenomenon known as "empty field myopia," the potentially dangerous tendency of pilots to absently focus on the windscreen instead of scanning the sky for hazards.

Ocular Screening System

Visiscreen-100 provides the means for wide-scale detection of vision problems

In the United States today, thousands of young children have eye defects which, if not detected and treated in the early stages, could result in permanent blindness. Until recently, there was no nationwide ocular screening program for the young, due to the lack of a fast, reliable, and economical method. Now, however, a NASA-patented invention called Visiscreen-lOO provides the means for wide-scale detection of vision problems.

Visiscreen was developed jointly by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and Dr. Howard Kerr, President of Medical Sciences Corporation (MSC), the exclusive manufacturer. The portable 2.4-meter apparatus has a hood at one end to hold the subject's head. At the other end is a photorefractor consisting of a 35-mm camera with a telephoto lens and an electronic flash unit.

When the subject is photographed, the light from the flash is sent into the retina and then reflected back to the camera lens. The camera captures the reflective properties of the inner and outer parts of both eyes in a color photograph that MSC technicians analyze using a set of computerized algorithms. Each eye is examined for refractive error and obstruction in the cornea or lens, while alignment problems are detected by the simultaneous imaging of both eyes. If problems are discovered, they are verified by an ophthalmologist.

Because it requires minimal cooperation, the system can be used for infants, preschoolers, and noncommunicative children. Visiscreen offers greater sensitivity than the traditional eye chart. In a test of 1657 Alabama children, only 111 failed the chart test, but the Visiscreen system found 5O7 abnormalities that were verified later by ophthalmologists. The system identifies amblyopia (progressive dimming of vision), also known as "lazy eye," in time for treatment.

(Photo Caption) The Visiscreen-l00 Photorefractor Ocular Screening System offers a simple, reliable, fast, inexpensive method for detecting eye problems in children.

(Photo Caption) Dr. Keith Morgan, a pediatric ophthalmologist, displays an example of a defect detected by Visiscreen-100. Note the difference in the child's plupils: the right eye shows a red disk characteristic of a normal retinal reflex; the left shows a dark coloration in the retinal reflex; the left shows a dark coloration in the retina indicating a defect later diagnosed as a cataract.

Speech Aids

The Speech Teacher* provides visual cues for speech improvement

A deaf person learning to speak requires assistance to modulate the tone and volume of his speaking voice. Recognizing this need, Joseph A. Resnick, president of Dynamed Audio Inc., Natrona Heights, Pennsylvania, invented the Resnick Speech Teacher* to provide visual cues for speech improvement.

Many deaf people, for example, tend to speak in unusually high- pitched tones. When the subject speaks into the Speech Teacher, it electronically processes the speech. Indicator lights on the device's panel corresponding to the subject's speech are compared with a display representing the optimum speech tone. The subject then tries to adjust his speech to match the model.

(Photo Caption) Joseph A. Resnick, president of Dynamed Audio Inc., demonstrates his Speech Teacher. The device uses visual cues to help deaf and hearing-impaired people improve their speech.

(Photo Caption) The Resnick Tone Emitter 1, which can be implanted in a denture, can take the place of a person's natural larynx. The miniature electronic device emits a tone that is shaped into words by the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate.

The Speech Teacher is available in a desk model, intended for use by clinicians, as well as a wrist-mounted version to wear in everyday social situations. The Speech Teacher is one of several devices invented by Resnick in which a NASA Regional Technology Transfer Center (RTTC) has played a part. NASA's six RTTCs nationwide perform computer search and retrieval services for industrial clients such as Resnick, who begins his technology development with a visit to the RTTC at the University of Pittsburgh.

Among other inventions for which the Pittsburgh RTTC provided assistance is the Resnick Tone Emitter ITM, a miniature electronic device for people who have lost their natural larynx to injury, cancer, or other diseases. Built into a denture, the device�like a human voice box�produces a tone that can be shaped into words by the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate. The system includes a microchip, microcircuitry, a power switch, a speaker covered with an impervious membrane, and a rechargeable battery. These components are so small that they fit like fillings into three or more artificial teeth within a partial or full denture.

Cool Suit

The system can eliminate 40-60 percent of stored body heat

Young Stevie Roper could only watch from the sidelines while other children played schoolyard games. Victim to a rare skin disease called hypohydrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED), Stevie was born without the sweat glands needed to eliminate excess body heat. As a result, any physical exertion or exposure to warm temperatures could induce heat stroke.

Years ago, during a visit to his aunt, Sara Moody, Stevie became overheated while riding in a non-air-conditioned car. He was saved by a quick-thinking cousin who spotted a lawn hose, stopped the car, and doused him with cold water.

The incident prompted Ms. Moody to seek the help of NASA's Langley Research Center, which put her in touch with Life Support Systems Inc. (LSSI) of Mountain View, California. A manufacturer of personal cooling gear, LSSI fabricated a child-size version of its Mark VII Microclimate Cooling Suit. The outfit consists of a helmet liner and vest that fit comfortably beneath the boy's clothes. An antifreeze solution cooled by a portable, battery-powered refrigeration unit is pumped through tubes to the garments. The system can eliminate 4O-6O percent of Stevie's stored body heat while lowering his heart rate by 5O-8O beats per minute.

(Photo Caption) Born without sweat glands, Stevie Roper lives a closer-to-norma life by wearing a space-derived cool suit. Coolant circulates through tubes in the vest and headpiece to prevent overheating.

(Photo Caption) The lack of sweat glands in Krystal Sharrett's feet had caused serious sores ond threatened amputation. Presented a cool suit in April 1989, Toby improved dramatically and by June the sores had completely healed.

(Photo Caption) Gary Rodne of Life Support Systems, Inc. displays a HED cool suit�headcap and torso vest�that is a child-size version of the company's MicroClimate line of protective garments for workers whose jobs subject them to heat stress.

The Mark VII suit originated in a 196Os NASA program that produced a channeled cooling suit for astronauts. While now used mainly in industrial settings that require heavy protective clothing, such as nuclear power plants and steel mills, the suit also has found numerous military applications. other uses include relieving cockpit heat stress for race car drivers and cooling firefighters. In 1988, LSSI released the ThermoAire Splint*, based on the same technology, to replace ice packs and elastic bandages for sports injuries.

Following media coverage of Stevie's story, LSSI began receiving requests from around the world for suits to help people with HED and other diseases and conditions�including multiple sclerosis, cystic fibrosis, severe bums, and some forms of cancer�that can make a person prone to overheating. The suits can be custom-made for particular body parts or problems, and have enabled many people to participate in sports and other strenuous activities from which they were previously barred.

Advanced Wheelchair

They constructed the chair using aerospace composite materials

For those who must rely on wheelchairs for mobility, more than one million in the U.S. alone, clearly the ideal chair would be lightweight and easy to maneuver. However, most commercially-available wheelchairs are heavy and awkward, break down frequently, and don't last very long. Recognizing these problems, the Department of Veterans Affairs and the National Institute of Handicapped Research have sponsored several wheelchair research projects.

Most projects have focused on improving parts rather than on developing an entirely new chair. One cooperative effort, however, undertook full-scale development�from analysis of requirements to prototype fabrication and evaluation�of an advanced wheelchair based on aerospace technology. NASA's Langley Research Center teamed with the University of Virginia (UVA) Rehabilitation Engineering Center, Charlottesville, Virginia to develop the prototype shown below. NASA funded Langley's part of the program, while UVA received support from the National Institute of Handicapped Research. Also participating in the program was the NASA-sponsored Research Triangle Institute (RTI) Application Team, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.

The Langley/UVA engineers first employed aerospace computerized structural analysis techniques to arrive at the optimum design. Then they constructed a prototype using aerospace composite materials, which are generally lighter but stronger than metals. The resulting chair weighs only 25 pounds but has the same strength and weight-bearing capability as a 5O-pound stainless steel wheelchair. It can be collapsed for auto stowage, and features a solid seat, wheel guards, dynamic brakes, shaped hand rims, and a footrest with smooth contours to aid in opening doors. The RTI Application Team is discussing commercial production of the advanced wheelchair with several interested manufacturers.

Vehicle Controller

Lunar Rover technology enables quadriplegics

In 1972, a paraplegic named Tom Wertz saw Apollo astronauts driving the Lunar Rover with just one hand - using a T-bar. After test-driving a rover himself, he realized that if such technology could be adapted to automobiles, it would help handicapped people become more independent. NASA and the Department of Veterans Affairs agreed, and contracted with Johnson Engineering, Boulder, Colorado to implement Wertz' idea. Roughly ten years after Wertz witnessed Apollo's lunar exploration, Johnson installed a prototype Unistik* vehicle control in a Ford van.

Johnson designed a two-axis joystick that controls the vehicle's steering wheel, brake, and accelerator pedal. It allows the driver to control the vehicle through small, low-force hand motions, from any position.

The Unistik Controller was designed for C-5 quadriplegics, such as Wertz, who have spinal cord lesions at the fifth cervical vertebra. People with such severe injuries have very limited use of their upper extremities; they are able to move their hand only a few inches to either side. The joystick is ideal because it has a very low control resistance.

Unistik driving is simple. Moving the stick forward accelerates the vehicle, to the rear slows it down, and left or right tums the steering wheel in the proper direction. Moving the joystick to the two o'clock position, for example, will yield an accelerating turn to the right. Another joystick controls tum signals and headlights. A push of a button deactivates the Unistik, returning the van to normal operation. Thus, both handicapped and able-bodied people can use the same vehicle.

Unistik also provides a platform for the evaluation of intelligent vehicle systems. The computer that controls its driving functions can receive input through a human-operated joystick, or from radar, laser, radio, and other sensor technologies. Unistik thereby enables research that will help all of us drive more safely on tomorrow's highways.

Human Tissue Stimulator

The HTS can send electrical pulses tbrough wire leads to targeted nerve centers or to particular areas of the brain

Chronic pain and involuntary motion disorders can be treated by electrical stimulation from a device implanted in the body. Called the Human Tissue Stimulator (HTS), the device was developed by Pacesetter Systems Inc., Sylmar, Califomia, in cooperation with the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University, Howard County, Maryland, and with the sponsorship of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

The HTS is based on Goddard-developed technology employed in NASA's Astronomy Satellite-3. It incorporates the same nickel cadmium battery, telemetry, and command systems used in the satellite, but reduced to microminiature proportions so that the implantable element is the size of a deck of cards (shown above, lower left-hand corner of photo). In contrast to earlier stimulating devices�which require cumbersome, extemally-carried power packs or have very limited lifetimes� the HTS is totally implantable.

The HTS includes a tiny re-chargeable battery, an antenna, and electronics to receive and process commands. It reports on its own condition via telemetry, a wireless process wherein instrument data is converted to electrical signals and sent to a receiver where the signals are translated into usable information.

Once implanted, the HTS can send electrical pulses through wire leads to targeted nerve centers or to particular areas of the brain. A control console (shown above) allows a physician to monitor and program the HTS, for example to alter the character and strength of the electrical impulses to address particular conditions such as intractable pain. The implant's nickel cadmium battery can be recharged through the skin, eliminating the need for frequent surgical replacement.

The benefits of the HTS can be swift and remarkable. The first implant, in 1983, involved a female patient who had severe involuntary movement disorders associated with multiple schlerosis. Several hours after surgery, the stimulator was applied to a part of the thalamus, a small region of the brain. The patient's tremors vanished�even though moments earlier she had been unable to guide a cup of coffee to her lips.

Another implant was used to treat a man who for several years had suffered excruciating pain in his left arm, caused by a wrist injury in a fall. Implanted under his left amm, the HTS was connected by wire leads to electrodes on the brachial plexus, a group of nerves that link the spinal cord with the injured arm. When the stimulator was activated, the patient reported immediate relief from the pain.

Although the initial implants were successful, extensive testing is required before the HTS can be made available for general use. Within the next few years, Pacesetter Systems expects to produce commercial programmable neural stimulators based on the HTS.

Blood Analyzer

A versatile, economical assembly for rapid separation of specific blood proteins in very small quantities

After a person's blood is drawn for a routine blood test, a biochemist must sort out its complex mixture of particles and organic molecules. A widely-used method of determining the presence and amount of specific blood constituents is electrophoresis, which employs an electrical current to separate fluid componetns and prevent interference from other compounds in the solution.

In the mid-196Os, NASA's Ames Research Center sponsored development of an automated electrophoresis device for the weightless environment of space. Designed for use on a monkey- carrying spacecraft to provide information on blood behavior in zero gravity, it never reached flight status. In 1972, a modified system was planned for use in the Skylab space station to study possible changes in astronauts' blood during long-term weightlessness. Although it did not fly in space, it was used in simulated weightlessness studies at Ames. Because the project had produced considerable advanced technology, the device was revived once more in the mid-197Os, this time as a technology utilization project aimed at producing an automated system for Earth use.

(Photo Caption) A researcher at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, uses the Sartophor system to study protein function

Ames contracted with the device's original developer, Dr. Benjamin W. Grunbaum of the University of California at Berkeley, for what later became known as the Grunbaum System for Electrophoresis. It is a versatile, economical assembly for rapid separation of specific blood proteins in very small quantities, permitting their subsequent identification and quantification. The system can handle lO to 2O samples simultaneously.

Grunbaum's innovation became a commercial product in 1982, produced under NASA license by Sartorius Filters Inc., Hayward, California. Known commercially as the Sartophor* System for Electrophoresis, it is both a research instrument and a diagnostic aid, with many applications in medicine, law enforcement science, pathology, biochemistry, and other biological sciences. Capable of analyzing a range of substances other than blood, it can also be used in the food, agriculture, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.

(Photo Caption) The Sartophor System for Electrophoresis is both a research instrument and a diagnostic tool.

(Photo Caption) The Sartophor System for Electrophoresis is both a research instrument and a diagnostic tool.

Microbe Detector

A device that incorporates space technology to signficantly reduce body fluid analysis time

The traditional method of testing for disease-producing microorganisms, or pathogens, to involves three steps. First, specimens of body fluid�urine or sputum, for example�are prepared in cultures. Then, the cultures are incubated for two to four days, after which time microbiologists study the cell growth to determine the presence of and identify pathogens.

Speeding up this process can reduce hospital stays by allowing quicker identification and earlier treatment of infection. Merieux Vitek Inc. (formerly Vitek Systems, a subsidiary of McDonnell Douglas), Hazelwood, Missouri, manufactures a device that incorporates space technology to significantly reduce body fluid analysis time. The technology dates back to McDonnell Douglas' Microbial Load Monitor (MLM), developed for NASA's Voyager interplanetary exploration program to detect bacterial contamination aboard the spacecraft. The company later studied an enhanced MLM capable of detecting and identifying bacterial infections among an astronaut crew. Recognizing the MLM's commercial potential, McDonnell Douglas converted the technology into a time-saving system for medical analysis called the AutoMicrobic System (AMS).

Instead of the petri dish customarily used to prepare cultures, AMS employs test kits�disposable, plastic cards approximately the size of a playing card, with each card containing from 16 to 3O wells that each hold a different chemical substance. There are two types of cards: identification cards and susceptibility cards. A body fluid sample is injected into the identification card and organisms in the sample react with the chemicals in the wells. Mounted in trays, the cards are placed in the AMS' incubator/ reader module. Scanning each well once an hour, the system "reads" the reactions taking place, compares them with information in the computer, and identifies the organism�or gives a negative report when no organism is present. This data is reported on a display screen and printout.

Once an organism is identified, the body sample goes into the susceptibility card�whose wells contain a number of different antibiotics. This card is similarly inserted into the system for computer examination, to determine which antibiotic is most effective against the organism. The entire process takes from four to 13 hours, compared with two to four days for culture preparations. AMS can handle up to 24O specimens at one time.

(Photo Caption) The AutoMitrobic System for identification and analysis of bacterial infections in humon body fluids uses disposable test kits instead of the traditional petri dish to prepare cultures.

In addition to enabling microbiology laboratories to fumish guidelines for antimicrobial treatment within one day of specimen collection, the AMS also minimizes human error, reduces technician time, and increases lab output. Beyond its medical uses, the AMS can serve in food processing and other industry laboratories for such applications as detection and identification of organisms during incoming, in-process, and finished goods inspections; identification of biological indicators in sterilization processes; and in-plant environmental testing.

Space Technology for Firefighting

Lightweight air cylinders patterned on technology originally developed for rocket motor casings

Firefighters, like astronauts, often brave dangerous, hostile environments protected mainly by the technology on their backs. In fact, a variety of technologies first developed for space exploration beneficial for fire fighting and prevention. Spinoffs include a portable firefighting module, protective clothing for workers in hazardous environments, fire-retardant paints and foams, fireblocking coatings for outdoor structures, and flame-resistant fabrics. Perhaps the farthest-reaching is the breathing apparatus worn by firefighters throughout the U.S. for protection from smoke inhalation injury.

In 1971, in response to concerns expressed by many of the nation's fire chiefs, NASA began the first concerted effort to improve firefighter breathing systems, which had not changed appreciably since the 194Os. The traditional breathing system was heavy, cumbersome, and so physically taxing that it often induced extreme fatigue. Many firefighters decided not to use the equipment, electing to brave the smoke rather than risk collapse from heat and exhaustion. As a result, smoke inhalation injuries increased.

(Photo Caption) Researchers at Johnson Space Center incorporated materials and technology from the space program into the design of a lighter, less bulky breathing apparatus for firefighters.

In concert with the National Bureau of Standards' Fire Technology Division, NASA established a public interest project directed by Johnson Space Center (JSC). JSC embarked on a four-year design and development effort that applied technology from the portable life support systems Apollo astronauts used on the moon. A committee of fire chiefs and city managers helped JSC establish the system specifications, and such organizations as the National Fire Protection Association periodically reviewed the program. Martin Marietta Corporation and Structural Composites Industries, Inc. were awarded contracts to build lightweight air cylinders patterned on technology originally developed for rocket motor casings, while Scott Aviation received the contract to build the remaining components. The resultant breathing system weighed approximately 2O pounds, one-third less than past systems, and improved wearer mobility. It consisted of a face mask, frame and hamess, a waming device, and an air bottle. The basic air cylinder offered the same 3O-minute operating time as its predecessor, but was lighter and slimmer by virtue of using aluminum/composite materials and doubling pressurization to 45OO pounds per square inch. Inverting the air cylinder shifted the valve to the underside, reducing risk of damage from falling debris. The frame and harness were easier to put on and take off, and the system's weight shifted from shoulders to hips, greatly improving wearer comfort. Further, the new face mask offered better visibility and closer fit, and the beep of the air depletion warning device could be heard only by the wearer, reducing confusion in the hectic environment of a fire scene. JSC conducted extensive testing of the improved system, which was followed by a series of field tests in 1974-75 by the fire departments of New York (the nation's largest), Houston, and Los Angeles. After completion of the tests, the New York City Fire Department became one of the first Qre services to adopt the new technology. Use of the lightweight apparatus spread quickly across the country. The result: a drastic reduction in the number of inhalation injuries to firefighters, according to the U.S. Fire Administration. Though they have made many design modifications and refinements, manufacturers of breathing apparatus to this day still incorporate in some way the original NASA technology.

(Photo Caption) At the NYFD Randall's Island Training facility, firefighters undergo "mask confidence training," carrying out such fire operations as probing building interiors and squeezing through tight confines. Their NASA-developed breathing system features a reduced profile to improve mobility.

(Photo Caption) Protected by a "hazmat" suit, a New York City firefighter disposes of hazardous material, while below, one firefighter helps another to adjusthis breathing system.

Food Processing Control

Pillsbury developed the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point concept, designed to prevent food safety problems

When NASA started planning for manned space travel in 1959, the myriad challenges of sustaining life in space included a seemingly mundane but vitally important problem: How and what do you feed an astronaut? There were two main concerns: safety problems preventing food crumbs from contaminating the spacecraft's atmosphere or floating into sensitive instruments, and assuring complete freedom from potentially catastrophic disease-producing bacteria, viruses, and toxins. To solve these problems, NASA enlisted the help of the Pillsbury Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Over the next decade, Pillsbury designed some of the first space foods and produced astronaut meals for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo manned spaceflight programs.

Pillsbury quickly solved the first problem by coating bite-size foods to prevent crumbling. Assurance against bacterial contamination proved a more difficult task. Investigators found that standard quality control methods could not bring such guarantees. Answering the challenge, Pillsbury developed the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept, potentially one of the farthest-reaching space spinoffs. HACCP is designed to prevent food safety problems rather than to catch them after they have occurred. The first step, hazard analysis, is a systematic study of a product, its ingredients, processing conditions, handling, storage, packaging, distribution, and directions for consumer use to identify sensitive areas that might prove hazardous. Hazard analysis provides a basis for blueprinting the Critical Control Points (CCPs) to be monitored. CCPs are points in the chain from raw materials to finished product where loss of control could result in unacceptable food safety risks.

(Photo Caption) Examples of food and drink products carried aboard early manned spacecraft. Measures developed by Pillsbury to assure astronaut protection from food poisoning evolved into a comprehensive food safety system.

Consider, for example, the production of cooked and vacuum- packed turkey breast. CCPs could include cooking, chilling, rehydrating, pasteurizing, chilling again, and storing. Once determined, criteria can be set that must be met for each CCP. In the example, the cooking CCP under current regulations would require the turkey to be cooked to a 16O degree F internal temperature. Plant personnel would be required to check and record the cooking temperature regularly; the inspector would check the plant's records for authenticity and accuracy, verifying that the thermometer measured the temperature accurately and periodically double-checking the product's intemal temperature. This illustrates the simplicity of HACCP. Yet, when the CCPs are determined, monitored, and verified on an ongoing basis, the result is a sophisticated process control system highly unlikely to produce an unsafe or otherwise contaminated product.

Pillsbury used the HACCP system to manufacture the food that went to the moon aboard Apollo spacecraft. Within two years of the first lunar landing in 1969, Pillsbury plants were following HACCP in production of food for Earth-bound consumers. Pillsbury's subsequent training courses for Food and Drug Administration (FDA) personnel led to the incorporation of HACCP in the FDA's Low Acid Canned Foods Regulations, set down in the mid-197Os to ensure the safety of all canned food products in the U.S.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), the public health agency responsible for inspecting meat and poultry, is conducting an extensive study to determine how HACCP can best be employed in its meat and poultry inspection program. In another government project, the FDA and the National Marine Fisheries Service of the National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are planning an HACCP-based voluntary inspection service for seafood.

(Photo Caption) At left and below is a sampling of Pills bury consumer products manufactured under a spinoff s

[Pak Yu Man]

[kreitler7]

Manned space travel (in my opinion) is critical to understand the physiological affects of being and travelling in space for a long period of time. Later, people will travel and live on other planets. Robots can't tell us everything. And, robots can't do everything either (yet). We need people in space to conduct research that will potentially benefit humans later on.

Remember, space exploration is still new. Advances (more to mack's liking) will happen later.

If explorers never left Europe, would North America exist today as it is?

Exploration (of anything) is important for the advancement of humans. It is through such explorations of the world, the body, and ultimately space, that we will prevent the human race from extinction.

[laogaiguk]

Well mack4289, there are all the tangible benefits. Not to mention, we aren't going into space only to escape a catastrophe, we will go into space long before that just to go (well, hopefully). Anyway, there is more than enough information here now to show you that there are tangible benefits already (let alone in the future).

[Hellsmk2]

So... mithridates and kreitler7 pretty much silenced the critics then. Good work - Thread over. :)

[mindmetoo]

[mindmetoo]

[mack4289]

Well, it's been educational, thanks guys. I was always put off by the cheap patriotism that was stirred up by manned space travel. There are a lot of benefits to it that I didn't realize, though.

[Kuros]

[Gopher]

This issue presupposes everything we do must have practical uses or consequences. But we are not an ant colony. We are Homo sapiens.

Mithridates makes many fine points, then. But they are not necessary.

We do many consiousness-enhancing things, including laboriously-producing art, music, dance, philosophy, religion, and history, to name but a few, besides space-exploration at least partly for space-exploration's sake.

I, for one, see nothing wrong with wanting to better understand what we are, where we are, and what surrounds us in the universe. Not every one of us complains "why do I need to know that to get a job!" when presented with the many new and intriguing possibilities such agencies like NASA and the scientists who inhabit them offer us.

[mindmetoo]

[mack4289]